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The deserts, which already occupy approximately a fourth of the Earth's land surface, have inrecent decades been increasing at an alarming pace. The expansion of desertlike conditionsinto areas where they did not previously exist is called desertification. It has been estimatedthat an additional one-fourth of the Earth's land surface is threatened by this process.
Desertification is accomplished primarily through the loss of stabilizing natural vegetation andthe subsequent accelerated erosion of the soil by wind and water. In some cases the loose soilis blown completely away, leaving a stony surface. In other cases, the finer particles may beremoved, while the sand-sized particles are accumulated to form mobile hills or ridges of sand.
Even in the areas that retain a soil cover, the reduction of vegetation typically results in theloss of the soil's ability to absorb substantial quantities of water. The impact of raindrops onthe loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them andproducing a surface that allows very little water penetration. Water absorption is greatlyreduced; consequently runoff is increased, resulting in accelerated erosion rates. The gradualdrying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb water results in the further loss ofvegetation, so that a cycle of progressive surface deterioration is established.
In some regions, the increase in desert areas is occurring largely as the result of a trendtoward drier climatic conditions. Continued gradual global warming has produced an increase inaridity for some areas over the past few thousand years. The process may be accelerated insubsequent decades if global warming resulting from air pollution seriously increases.
There is little doubt, however, that desertification in most areas results primarily from humanactivities rather than natural processes. The semiarid lands bordering the deserts exist in adelicate ecological balance and are limited in their potential to adjust to increasedenvironmental pressures. Expanding populations are subjecting the land to increasingpressures to provide them with food and fuel. In wet periods, the land may be able to respondto these stresses. During the dry periods that are common phenomena along the desertmargins, though, the pressure on the land is often far in excess of its diminished capacity,and desertification results.
Four specific activities have been identified as major contributors to the desertificationprocesses: overcultivation, overgrazing, firewood gathering, and overirrigation. The cultivationof crops has expanded into progressively drier regions as population densities have e regions are especially likely to have periods of severe dryness, so that crop failures arecommon. Since the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removal of the naturalvegetation, crop failures leave extensive tracts of land devoid of a plant cover and susceptibleto wind and water erosion.
The raising of livestock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands, where grasses aregenerally the dominant type of natural vegetation. The consequences of an excessive numberof livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the tramplingand pulverization of the soil. This is usually followed by the drying of the soil and acceleratederosion.
Firewood is the chief fuel used for cooking and heating in many countries. The increasedpressures of expanding populations have led to the removal of woody plants so that manycities and towns are surrounded by large areas completely lacking in trees and shrubs. Theincreasing use of dried animal waste as a substitute fuel has also hurt the soil because thisvaluable soil conditioner and source of plant nutrients is no longer being returned to the land.
The final major human cause of desertification is soil salinization resulting from ss water from irrigation sinks down into the water table. If no drainage system exists, thewater table rises, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. The water evaporates and the saltsare left behind, creating a white crustal layer that prevents air and water from reaching theunderlying soil.
The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and thetremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing oreven slowing the process. Once the soil has been removed by erosion, only the passage ofcenturies or millennia will enable new soil to form. In areas where considerable soil still remains,though, a rigorously enforced program of land protection and cover-crop planting may make itpossible to reverse the present deterioration of the surface.
Paragraph 1: The deserts, which already occupy approximately a fourth of the Earth's landsurface, have in recent decades been increasing at an alarming pace. The expansion ofdesertlike conditions into areas where they did not previously exist is called desertification. Ithas been estimated that an additional one-fourth of the Earth's land surface is threatened bythis process.
1. The word threatened in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Restricted
○Endangered
○Prevented
○Rejected
Paragraph 3: Even in the areas that retain a soil cover, the reduction of vegetation typicallyresults in the loss of the soil's ability to absorb substantial quantities of water. The impact ofraindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces,sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration. Waterabsorption is greatly reduced; consequently runoff is increased, resulting in acceleratederosion rates. The gradual drying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb waterresults in the further loss of vegetation, so that a cycle of progressive surface deteriorationis established.
2. According to paragraph 3, the loss of natural vegetation has which of the followingconsequences for soil?
○Increased stony content
○Reduced water absorption
○Increased numbers of spaces in the soil
○Reduced water runoff
Paragraph 5: There is little doubt, however, that desertification in most areas results primarilyfrom human activities rather than natural processes. The semiarid lands bordering the desertsexist in a delicate ecological balance and are limited in their potential to adjust to increasedenvironmental pressures. Expanding populations are subjecting the land to increasingpressures to provide them with food and fuel. In wet periods, the land may be able to respondto these stresses. During the dry periods that are common phenomena along the desertmargins, though, the pressure on the land is often far in excess of its diminished capacity,and desertification results.
3. The word delicate in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Fragile
○Predictable
○Complex
○Valuable
4. According to paragraph 5, in dry periods, border areas have difficulty
○Adjusting to stresses created by settlement
○Retaining their fertility after desertification
○Providing water for irrigating crops
○Attracting populations in search of food and fuel
Paragraph 6: Four specific activities have been identified as major contributors to thedesertification processes: overcultivation, overgrazing, firewood gathering, and cultivation of crops has expanded into progressively drier regions as population densitieshave grown. These regions are especially likely to have periods of severe dryness, so that cropfailures are common. Since the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removal of thenatural vegetation, crop failures leave extensive tracts of land devoid of a plant cover andsusceptible to wind and water erosion.
5. The word progressively in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Openly
○Impressively
○Objectively
○Increasingly
6. According to paragraph 6, which of the following is often associated with raising crops?
○Lack of proper irrigation techniques
○Failure to plant crops suited to the particular area
○Removal of the original vegetation
○Excessive use of dried animal waste
7. The phrase devoid of in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Consisting of
○Hidden by
○Except for
○Lacking in
Paragraph 9: The final major human cause of desertification is soil salinization resulting fromover irrigation. Excess water from irrigation sinks down into the water table. If no drainagesystem exists, the water table rises, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. The waterevaporates and the salts are left behind, creating a white crustal layer that prevents air andwater from reaching the underlying soil.
8. According to paragraph 9, the ground’s absorption of excess water is a factor indesertification because it can
○Interfere with the irrigation of land
○Limit the evaporation of water
○Require more absorption of air by the soil
○Bring salts to the surface
9. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as contributing to desertification EXCEPT
○Soil erosion
○Global warming
○Insufficient irrigation
○The raising of livestock
Paragraph 10: The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of landand the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty ofreversing or even slowing the process. Once the soil has been removed by erosion, only thepassage of centuries or millennia will enable new soil to form. In areas where considerable soilstill remains, though, a rigorously enforced program of land protection and cover-crop plantingmay make it possible to reverse the present deterioration of the surface.
10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlightedsentence in the passage?
Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○Desertification is a significant problem because it is so hard to reverse and affects large areasof land and great numbers of people.
○Slowing down the process of desertification is difficult because of population growth thathas spread over large areas of land.
○The spread of deserts is considered a very serious problem that can be solved only if largenumbers of people in various countries are involved in the effort.
○Desertification is extremely hard to reverse unless the population is reduced in the vastareas affected.
11. It can be inferred from the passage that the author most likely believes which of thefollowing about the future of desertification?
○Governments will act quickly to control further desertification.
○The factors influencing desertification occur in cycles and will change in the future.
○Desertification will continue to increase.
○Desertification will soon occur in all areas of the world.
Paragraph 7:■ The raising of livestock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands, wheregrasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation. ■The consequences of anexcessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation coverand the trampling and pulverization of the soil. ■This is usually followed by the drying of thesoil and accelerated erosion.■
12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added tothe passage.
This economic reliance on livestock in certain regions makes large tracts of land susceptibleto overgrazing.
Where would the sentence best fit?
13-14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is providedbelow. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the mostimportant ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary becausethey express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the question is worth 2 points.
Many factors have contributed to the great increase in desertification in recent decades.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
1. Growing human populations and the agricultural demands that come with such growth haveupset the ecological balance in some areas and led to the spread of deserts.
2. As periods of severe dryness have become more common, failures of a number of differentcrops have increased.
3. Excessive numbers of cattle and the need for firewood for fuel have reduced grasses andtrees, leaving the land unprotected and vulnerable.
4. Extensive irrigation with poor drainage brings salt to the surface of the soil, a process thatreduces water and air absorption.
5. Animal dung enriches the soil by providing nutrients for plant growth.
6. Grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation in semiarid lands.
參考答案：
1. ○2
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is threatened. It is highlighted in thepassage. To threaten means to speak or act as if you will cause harm to someone orsomething. The object of the threat is in danger of being hurt, so the correct answer is choice2, "endangered."
2. ○2
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found inparagraph 3. The correct answer is choice 2, reduced water absorption. The paragraphexplicitly states that the reduction of vegetation greatly reduces water absorption. Choice 4,reduced water runoff, explicitly contradicts the paragraph, so it is incorrect. The "spaces in thesoil" are mentioned in another context: the paragraph does not say that they increase, sochoice 3 is incorrect. The paragraph does not mention choice 1.
3. ○1
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is delicate. It is highlighted in thepassage. The correct answer is choice 1, "fragile," meaning "easily broken." Delicate has thesame meaning as "fragile."
4. ○1
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found inparagraph 5. The correct answer is choice 1: border areas have difficulty "adjusting to stressescreated by settlement." The paragraph says that "expanding populations," or settlement,subject border areas to "pressures," or stress, that the land may not "be able to respond to."Choice 2 is incorrect because the paragraph does not discuss "fertility" after ce 3 is also incorrect because "irrigation" is not mentioned here. The paragraph mentions"increasing populations" but not the difficulty of "attracting populations," so choice 4 isincorrect.
5. ○4
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is progressively. It is highlighted in thepassage. The correct answer is choice 4, "increasingly." Progressively as it is used here means"more," and "more" of something means that it is increasing.
6. ○3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found inparagraph 6. The correct answer is choice 3, "removal of the original vegetation." Sentence 4of this paragraph says that "the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removal of thenatural vegetation," an explicit statement of answer choice 3. Choice 1, lack of properirrigation techniques, is incorrect because the paragraph mentions only "overirrigation" as acause of desertification. No irrigation "techniques" are discussed. Choices 2 and 4, failure toplant suitable crops and use of animal waste, are not discussed.
7. ○4
his is a Vocabulary question. A phrase is being tested here, and all of the answer choices arephrases. The phrase is "devoid of." It is highlighted in the passage. "Devoid of' means"without," so the correct answer is choice 4, "lacking in." If you lack something that means youare without that thing.
8. ○4
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found inparagraph 9. The correct answer is choice 4, "bring salts to the surface." The paragraph saysthat the final human cause of desertification is salinization resulting from overirrigation. Theparagraph goes on to say that the overirrigation causes the water table to rise, bringing saltsto the surface. There is no mention of the process "interfering" with or "limiting" irrigation, or ofthe "amount of air" the soil is required to absorb, so choices 1,2, and 3 are all incorrect.
9. ○3
This is a Negative Factual Information question asking for specific information that can befound in the passage. Choice 3, "insufficient irrigation," is the correct answer. Choice 1, "soilerosion," is explicitly mentioned in paragraph 2 as one of the primary causes ofdesertification, so it is not the correct answer. Choice 2, "global warning," is mentioned as acause of desertification in paragraph 4, so it is incorrect. Choice 4, "raising of livestock," isdescribed in paragraph 7 as another cause of desertification, so it is incorrect. The passageincludes excessive irrigation as a cause of desertification, but not its opposite, insufficientirrigation, so that is the correct answer.
10. ○1
This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in thepassage is highlighted:
The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and thetremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing oreven slowing the process.
The correct answer is choice 1. That choice contains all of the essential information in thehighlighted sentence and does not change its meaning. The only substantive differencebetween choice 1 and the tested sentence is the order in which he information is clauses in the highlighted sentence, "The great difficulty of reversing the process" and "thenumbers of people affected," have simply been reversed; no meaning has been changed, andno information has been removed. Choices 2,3, and 4 are all incorrect because they change themeaning of the highlighted sentence.
11. ○3
This is an Inference question asking for an inference that can be supported by the passage. Thecorrect answer is choice 3; the passage suggests that the author believes "Desertification willcontinue to increase." The last paragraph of the passage says that slowing or reversing theerosion process will be very difficult, but that it may occur in those areas that are not tooaffected already if rigorously enforced anti-erosion processes are implemented. Takentogether, this suggests that the author is not confident this until happen; therefore, it can beinferred that he thinks erosion will continue. The passage provides no basis for inferringchoices 1, 2, or 4.
12. ○2
This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph
7 that represent the possible answer choices here:
■The raising of live stock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands, where grasses aregenerally the dominant type of natural vegetation. ■The consequences of an excessivenumber of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and thetrampling and pulverization of the soil. ■This is usually followed by the drying of the soil andaccelerated erosion. ■
The sentence provided, "This economic reliance on livestock in certain regions makes largetracts of land susceptible to overgrazing," is best inserted at Square 2. The inserted sentencerefers explicitly to relying on "livestock in certain regions." Those regions are the onesdescribed in the sentence preceding square2, which states that raising livestock is "a majoreconomic activity in semiarid lands." The inserted sentence then explains that this reliance"makes large tracts of land susceptible to overgrazing. " The sentence that follows square 2goes on to say that "The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in anarea are. . ." Thus, the inserted sentence contains references to both the sentence beforesquare 2 and the sentence after square 2. This is not true of any of the other possible insertpoints, so square 2 is correct.
13-14.○1 3 4
This is a Prose Summary question. It is completed correctly below. The correct choices are 1, 3,and 4. Choices 2, 5, and 6 are therefore incorrect.
沙漠已經佔據了地球表面積約四分之一，而且最近幾十年正以驚人的速度擴張。沙漠化是指類似沙漠的環境漫延到原本並非沙漠的區域。據估計，地球表面另外四分之一的地方正面臨沙漠化威脅。
沙漠化主要通過以下過程實現：首先自然植被不斷減少，隨後風力和雨水加速了土壤的腐蝕。有的時候鬆散的土壤全部被風颳走，留下石質化的表層;其它情況下細小的沙粒可能會被吹走，而正常沙粒大小的砂子不斷堆積，從而形成移動的沙丘或者沙脊。
即便是在保留了土壤表層的區域，植被減少也已成爲土壤大量吸取地下水的能力下降的典型因素。雨水對鬆散土壤的衝擊會把細小的粘土顆粒衝到土壤空隙中，封閉了土壤並降低土地表層水的滲透率。地表對水的吸收急劇減少，大量水資源流失，因此土壤的腐蝕率也隨即增加。地表吸收水分的能力進一步弱化使得土壤越發乾燥，導致植被的進一步流失，於是便形成了土壤沙漠化的惡性循環。
在一些地方，沙漠面積的擴大很大程度上歸因於乾燥的氣候條件。在過去的幾千年裏，不斷增加的溫室效應使得一些地方乾旱問題愈發嚴重。倘若空氣污染帶來的溫室效應繼續惡化，沙漠化進程會在未來數十年內加速實現。
然而，可以肯定的是，大部分地區沙漠化主要都是由於人類活動造成，而非自然條件導致。沙漠邊緣的半乾旱土地所處的生態平衡環境非常脆弱，環境壓力持續增加，而這些半乾旱區域適應環境壓力的能力極其有限。人口數量的`增加使得人們不斷向土地施壓，依其提供實物和燃料。在溼潤的季節裏，土地興許能夠應付這些壓力。但是在乾旱的季節裏，在沙漠周邊的土地上，存在着這樣一個十分普遍的現象：人類對土地施加的壓力遠遠超過了土地自身減壓的能力，因此最終形成了沙漠。
導致沙漠化的主要因素有四個：過度種植，過度放牧，過分砍伐，過度灌溉。由於人口密度增加，人們對糧食作物的種植已經擴展到日益乾燥的區域進行。這些區域很有可能經常會發生乾旱，所以農作物種植失敗是很正常的事情。種植大量農作物需要事先移除天然植被，而農作物欠收後又會留下大面積荒地，非常容易被風力和雨水侵蝕。
在半乾旱地區，草坪是主要的天然植被，家畜飼養是當地的一項主要經濟活動。在一個地區過量飼養家畜會導致植被覆蓋面積減少，土地被大量踐踏和碾碎。通常，隨之而來的就是土地硬化和加速侵蝕。
在很多國家木材是用來做飯和加熱的最主要燃料。人口增加帶來的壓力促使人們大量砍伐木材，導致許多城市和鄉村周圍大面積樹木和灌木減少。同時人們大量使用烘乾的動物排泄物作爲替代燃料同樣對土壤不利，因爲這些珍貴的土壤成分調節劑和植物營養資源將不會再回歸至土壤當中。
造成土地沙漠化的最後一個主要人爲因素在於人類過度灌溉導致土壤的鹽鹼化。灌溉多餘的水滲透到地下水位。假如沒有排水系統的存在，那麼地下水位上升，把溶解的鹽分帶到土壤表面。水分蒸發後，鹽分留在了表面，形成白色的地殼層，這一地殼層阻止了空氣和水接觸地底下的土壤。
沙漠化問題異常嚴重，這是因爲有佷廣闊的地區和數量龐大的人羣都受到了沙漠化的影響，而且要想逆轉沙漠化的進程甚至減緩沙漠化的速度都面臨着巨大的困難。一旦土壤被侵蝕，需要再經過幾百到上千年的時間纔會產生新的土壤。那些大量土壤仍保存完好的地方，亟需一個嚴謹而有力的保護政策和植被覆蓋計劃來保護現有土地。
