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In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, sincethere is little concrete evidence on which to draw. The most widely accepted theory,championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisionstheater as emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived by these anthropologistsmay be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, a society becomesaware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being. Having littleunderstanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences tosupernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these eiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and theresult it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies,or rituals.
Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual. Frequently the myths includerepresentatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to ormers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters orsupernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations. As a person becomes moresophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change. Asa result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the myths that have grown up around therites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted outunder conditions divorced from these rites. When this occurs, the first step has been takentoward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic valuesmay gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns.
Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means the only theoryabout how the theater came into being. Storytelling has been proposed as one r this theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human , the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaborated through thenarrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumedby a different person.
A closely related theory sees theater as evolving out of dances that are primarily pantomimic,rhythmical or gymnastic, or from imitations of animal noises and sounds. Admiration for theperformer’s skill, virtuosity, and grace are seen as motivation for elaborating the activities intofully realized theatrical performances.
In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorizedabout the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, and why was itvalued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theoriesabout the human mind and basic human needs. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth centuryB.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, andactions and in seeing such imitations. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggeststhat humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into moresatisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which dramais one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfilltheir hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define andunderstand their world or escape from unpleasant realities.
But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to anautonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. One necessary conditionseems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems. For example, one sign of thiscondition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficientdetachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as seriousthreats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to thedevelopment of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example,some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being andabandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths thathad grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for theirreligious usefulness.
Paragraph 1: In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily onspeculation, since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw. The most widelyaccepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentiethcenturies, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived bythese anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, asociety becomes aware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable andundesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to winthe favor of these forces. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actionsperformed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizesthose actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals.
1. The word “championed” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Changed
○Debated
○Created
○Supported
2. The word “attributes” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Ascribes
○Leaves
○Limits
○Contrasts
3. According to paragraph 1, theories of the origins of theater
○Are mainly hypothetical
○Are well supported by factual evidence
○Have rarely been agreed upon by anthropologists
○Were expressed in the early stages of theater’s development
4. According to paragraph 1, why did some societies develop and repeat ceremonial actions?
○To establish a positive connection between the members of the society
○To help society members better understand the forces controlling their food supply
○To distinguish their beliefs from those of other societies
○To increase the society’s prosperity
Paragraph 2:Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual. Frequently the myths includerepresentatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to ormers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters orsupernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations. As a people becomes moresophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change. Asa result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the myths that have grown up around therites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted outunder conditions divorced from these rites. When this occurs, the first step has been takentoward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic valuesmay gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns.
5. The word “this” in the passage refers to
○The acting out of rites
○The divorce of ritual performers from the rest of society
○The separation of myths from rites
○The celebration of supernatural forces
6. The word “autonomous” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Artistic
○Important
○Independent
○Established
7. According to paragraph 2, what may cause societies to abandon certain rites?
○Emphasizing theater as entertainment
○Developing a new understanding of why events occur.
○Finding a more sophisticated way of representing mythical characters
○Moving from a primarily oral tradition to a more written tradition
Paragraph 5:In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have alsotheorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, andwhy was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on thetheories about the human mind and basic human needs. One, set forth by Aristotle in thefourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitatingpersons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another, advanced in the twentiethcentury, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshapereality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus, fantasy or fiction(of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confrontthem, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby peopledefine and understand their world or escape from unpleasant realities.
8. All of following are mentioned in paragraph 5 as possible reasons that led societies to developtheater EXCEPT:
○Theater allows people to face that they are afraid of.
○Theater gives an opportunity to imagine a better reality.
○Theater is a way to enjoy imitating other people.
○Theater provides people the opportunity to better understand the human mind.
9. Which of the following best describes the organization of paragraph 5?
○The author presents two theories for a historical phenomenon.
○The author argues against theories expressed earlier in the passage.
○The author argues for replacing older theories with a new one.
○The author points out problems with two popular theories.
Paragraph 6: But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itselfleads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. Onenecessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems. For example,one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requiressufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather thanas serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to thedevelopment of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example,some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being andabandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths thathad grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for theirreligious usefulness.
word “penchant” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Compromise
○Inclination
○Tradition
○Respect
does the author mention “comedy”?
○To give an example of early types of theater
○To explain how theater helps a society respond to threats to its welfare
○To help explain why detachment is needed for the development of theater
○To show how theatrical performers become detached from other members of society.
h of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlightedsentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave outessential information.
○A society’s rites were more likely to be retained in the oral tradition if its myths were admiredfor artistic qualities.
○The artistic quality of a myth was sometimes an essential reason for a society to abandonit from the oral tradition.
○Some early societies stopped using myths in their religious practices when rites ceased to beseen as useful for social well-being.
○Myths sometimes survived in a society’s tradition because of their artistic qualities even afterthey were no longer deemed religiously beneficial.
Paragraph 3:█Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means theonly theory about how the theater came into being.█ Storytelling has been proposed as onealternative. █Under this theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamentalhuman pleasures.█ Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaboratedthrough the narrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each rolebeing assumed by a different person.
at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added tothe passage.
To enhance their listener’s enjoyment, storytellers continually make their stores moreengaging and memorable.
Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.
ctions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is providedbelow. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the mostimportant ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because theyexpress ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. Thisquestion is worth 2 points.
Anthropologists have developed many theories to help understand why and how theateroriginated.
●
●
●
Answer choices
○The presence of theater in almost all societies is thought to have occurred because earlystory tellers traveled to different groups to tell their stores.
○Many theorists believe that theater arises when societies act out myths to preserve socialwell-being.
○The more sophisticated societies became, the better they could influence desirableoccurrences through ritualized theater.
○Some theories of theater development focus on how theater was used by group leaders togroup leaders govern other members of society.
○Theater may have come from pleasure humans receive from storytelling and movingrhythmically.
○The human capacities for imitation and fantasy are considered possible reasons whysocieties develop theater.
1. ○ 4
2. ○ 1
3. ○ 1
4. ○ 4
5. ○ 3
6. ○ 3
7. ○ 2
8. ○ 4
9. ○ 1
10. ○ 2
11. ○ 3
12. ○ 4
13. ○ 4
14. ○2 5 6
參考譯文
戲劇的起源
由於幾乎沒有具體材料可供研究，探尋戲劇的起源只能憑推測。19世紀末20世紀初爲人類學家們所擁護的一種理論得到了世人的廣泛認同;這種觀點認爲戲劇起源於神話和宗教儀式，這些人類學家們推論過程可簡要概括如下：在社會發展早期，人們相信有股力量可以影響甚至操控他們的食物供應和幸福生活。在對自然原因並不十分了解的情況下，他們把希望或不惜希望發生的事情都歸咎於超自然的或魔幻的力量，並且試圖尋找各種途徑贏得這些力量的厚愛。當他們意識到自己的某些行爲和期許的結果之間存在明顯的聯繫以後，人們便開始重複並且完善這些行爲，最終形成固定的典禮或宗教儀式。
故事(神話)在這種儀式中發展起來，這些故事中經常會有儀式慶祝或期望影響的超自然力量的典型。在這種儀式或伴隨的慶典中，表演者們可能會穿上戲裝和麪具來扮演神祕的角色或超自然力量。當人們認識事物的能力進一步加強的時候，他們對超自然力量以及與其引發的事件間因果關係的認識就發生了改變;於是，他們會拋棄或者修改某些儀式。不過在這些儀式中發展起來的神話故事繼續在人們的口頭流傳，甚至可能脫離了儀式而被演繹着。這時侯，戲劇做爲一種自發的活動邁出了自己的第一步，接着，戲劇的娛樂和審美價值開始漸漸取代先前的帶有神話色彩的'、在社會上靈驗的關注。
儘管戲劇起源於宗教儀式的說法是目前最被大衆認可的，但無論如何這都不是戲劇起源的唯一理論;另一種推測認爲戲劇源於說書。在這個理論中，與故事產生聯繫和聆聽故事被視爲是人類基本的樂趣。因此，講述人通過自己的手勢和模仿把對一個事件的回憶(一次打獵、戰役或是其它功勳偉業)表現的淋漓盡致，這種方式最終演變成爲由不同的人來演繹不同的角色。
另外一種與之相關的理論認爲，戲劇主要是從無聲的、有節奏的舞蹈、體操，或模仿動物聲音的過程逐漸演變而來。人們對錶演者的演技、審美能力和優雅的欣賞被視爲是表演者將他們的表演精心策劃爲戲劇的動力。
爲了進一步探尋戲劇的起源，一些學派開始從人類發展戲劇的動機上建立理論。爲什麼戲劇會發展，爲什麼在戲劇完全脫離宗教儀式以後還有這麼大的價值?大部分答案都回到那些關於人類心智和人類基本需求的理論中。首先，亞里士多德在公元前4世紀提出，人們天生好模仿，並從模仿他人、事物和動作以及觀看模仿中獲得樂趣。另外，20世紀提出的先進理論認爲人類擅長幻想，通過幻想將日常生活中的現實重塑成更加令人滿意的形式。因此，人們通過幻想或虛構(戲劇的一個形式)把他們的焦慮和恐懼具體化，再通過這種方式面對焦慮和恐懼，並從虛構中滿足他們現實中無法實現的願望。所以，戲劇成爲了一種幫助人們認識和理解這個世界，或是幫助人們逃避不滿現實的工具。
但是，無論是人類模仿的本能或是對幻想的嗜好本身都不能發展成爲獨立的戲劇，因此，我們需要更多解釋。一個必要的條件可能是一種要脫離通常人們看待問題的視角。比如，這個條件的一個標誌是喜劇構想的出現，因爲喜劇要求足夠的發散思維，我們需要將社會規範中的離經叛道的行爲視作極其荒謬的事情，而不是對公衆羣體福利的嚴重威脅。另一個導致戲劇獨立的條件是審美感覺的出現。例如，一些早期社會的人們認爲有的儀式對他們的幸福生活來說不再是必需品，並且取消了那些儀式。雖然如此，人們還是保留了那些口頭傳述故事的傳統並且熱愛從這些儀式裏發展起來的神話，出於它們的藝術性，而不是宗教原因。
