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When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggressivebehavior. Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressivebehavior in people.
The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear to be involved inaggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response to certain stimuli,many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypothalamus appears to beinvolved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamustriggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however, whose brainsare more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggests that aggression is naturaland even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behavior, including aggressivebehavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin held thatmany more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. A strugglefor survival follows. Those individuals who possess characteristics that provide them with anadvantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genesto the next generation. In many species, such characteristics include aggressiveness. Becauseaggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked toaggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations.
The sociobiology view has been attacked on numerous grounds. One is that people's capacityto outwit other species, not their aggressiveness, appears to be the dominant factor inhuman survival. Another is that there is too much variation among people to believe that theyare dominated by, or at the mercy of, aggressive impulses.
The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that innerconflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud,for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations ofdaily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including theirparents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demandsimmediately. Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love,come to repress most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense: sees us as"steam engines." By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for futureexplosions. Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed towardparents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed towardstrangers later in life.
According to psychodynamic theory, the best ways to prevent harmful aggression may be toencourage less harmful aggression. In the steam-engine analogy, verbal aggression mayvent some of the aggressive steam. So might cheering on one's favorite sports hoanalysts, therapists adopting a psychodynamic approach, refer to the venting ofaggressive impulses as "catharsis." Catharsis is theorized to be a safety valve. But researchfindings on the usefulness of catharsis are mixed. Some studies suggest that catharsis leadsto reductions in tension and a lowered likelihood of future aggression. Other studies,however, suggest that letting some steam escape actually encourages more aggression lateron.
The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by ourvalues, by the ways in which we interpret our situations and by choice. For example, peoplewho believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-are likely to actaggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust,or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively.
One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasantfeelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not itive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on thebasis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of otherpeople's motives. Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressive peopleoften distort other people's motives. For example, they assume that other people mean themharm when they do not.
Catharsis: In psychodynamic theory, the purging of strong emotions or the relieving oftensions.
Paragraph 2: The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear tobe involved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response tocertain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypothalamusappears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimulation of part of thehypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however,whose brains are more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possibleinstincts.
1. According to paragraph 2, what evidence indicates that aggression in animals is related tothe hypothalamus?
○Some aggressive animal species have a highly developed hypothalamus.
○Artificial stimulation of the hypothalamus results in aggression in animals.
○Animals behaving aggressively show increased activity in the hypothalamus.
○Animals who lack a hypothalamus display few aggressive tendencies.
Paragraph 3: An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggests thataggression is natural and even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behavior,including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin's theory ofevolution. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food andsurvive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows. Those individuals who possesscharacteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle for existence are morelikely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation. In many species, suchcharacteristics include aggressiveness. Because aggressive individuals are more likely tosurvive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely tobe transmitted to subsequent generations.
2. According to Darwin's theory of evolution, members of a species are forced to struggle forsurvival because
○Not all individuals are skilled in finding food
○Individuals try to defend their young against attackers
○Many more individuals are born than can survive until the age of reproduction
○Individuals with certain genes are more likely to reach adulthood
Paragraph 5: The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approachhold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including und Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to thefrustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people,including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of theirdemands immediately. Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss ofparental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in asense: sees us as "steam engines." By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stagefor future explosions. Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressedtoward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressedtoward strangers later in life.
3. The word inevitable in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Unavoidable
○Regrettable
○Controllable
○Unsuitable
4. The word gratify in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Identify
○Modify
○Satisfy
○Simplify
5. The word they in the passage refers to
○Future explosions
○Pent-up aggressive impulses
○Outlets
○Indirect ways
6. According to paragraph 5, Freud believed that children experience conflict between a desireto vent aggression on their parents and
○A frustration that their parents do not give them everything they want
○A fear that their parents will punish them and stop loving them
○A desire to take care of their parents
○A desire to vent aggression on other family members
7. Freud describes people as steam engines in order to make the point that people
○Deliberately build up their aggression to make themselves stronger
○Usually release aggression in explosive ways
○Must vent their aggression to prevent it from building up
○Typically lose their aggression if they do not express it
Paragraph 7: The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior isinfluenced by our values, by the ways in which we interpret our situations and by choice. Forexample, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-arelikely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act ofaggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behaveaggressively.
Paragraph 8: One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events triggerunpleasant feelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but notautomatically. Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively ornot on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretationof other people's motives. Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressivepeople often distort other people's motives. For example, they assume that other people meanthem harm when they do not.
8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlightedsentence in the passage?
Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essentialinformation.
○People who believe that they are fighting a just war act aggressively while those who believethat they are fighting an unjust war do not.
○People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified are more likely to actaggressively than those who believe differently.
○People who normally do not believe that aggression is necessary and justified may actaggressively during wartime.
○People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified do not necessarily actaggressively during wartime.
9. According to the cognitive approach described in paragraphs 7 and 8, all of the followingmay influence the decision whether to act aggressively EXCEPT a person's
○Moral values
○Previous experiences with aggression
○Instinct to avoid aggression
○Beliefs about other people's intentions
10. The word distort in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Mistrust
○Misinterpret
○Criticize
○Resent
Paragraph 5: The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approachhold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including und Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to thefrustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people,including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of theirdemands immediately. ■Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss ofparental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. ■The Freudian perspective, in asense: sees us as "steam engines." ■By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set thestage for future explosions. ■Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may beexpressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may beexpressed toward strangers later in life.
11. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added tothe passage.
According to Freud, however, impulses that have been repressed continue to exist anddemand expression.
Where would the sentence best fit?
12. Directions: Complete the table below by matching five of the six answer choices with theapproach to aggression that they exemplify. This question is worth 3 points.
Approach to Understanding Aggression Associated Claims
Biological approach
●
Psychodynamic approach
●
●
Cognitive approach
●
●
Answer choices
1. Aggressive impulses toward people are sometimes expressed in indirect ways.
2. Aggressiveness is often useful for individuals in the struggle for survival.
3. Aggressive behavior may involve a misunderstanding of other people's intentions.
4. The need to express aggressive impulses declines with age.
5. Acting aggressively is the result of a choice influenced by a person's values and beliefs.
6. Repressing aggressive impulses can result in aggressive behavior.
參考答案:
1. ○ 3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found inparagraph 2. The correct answer is choice 3. The question asks specifically for "evidence thatindicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus." Answer choices 1 and 2are contradicted by the paragraph. Choice 2 is incorrect because, while the paragraph statesthat "electrical stimulation" triggers aggressive behavior in many animals, this is not"evidence" in itself, but merely support for the more general statement in choice 3 thatincreased hypothalamus activity, in general, is related to aggression.
以上內容爲OG給出的解釋，但本人認爲此題無正確選項。因爲C選項中的increased activity爲原文未提及內容，因此C項不正確。
B選項中artificial錯誤，因爲我們不能從原文當中的電刺激海馬體導致動物侵略性推出人工的刺激海馬體能導致動物侵略性，這個是一個以偏概全的結論，因此建議將B選項中的artificial改爲electrical，則B選項爲正確選項。
2. ○3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in thepassage. The correct answer is choice 3, "many more individuals are born than can survive untilthe age of reproduction." This answer choice is essentially a paraphrase of paragraph 3,sentence 4: "Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food andsurvive into adulthood." Choices 1 and 2 are not mentioned at all. Choice 4 may be true, but itis not stated in the passage as a fact; an inference is needed to support it.
3. ○1
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is inevitable. It is highlighted in thepassage. The correct answer is choice 1, unavoidable. If something is inevitable, that meansthat it will occur no matter what; in other words, it is unavoidable.
4. ○3
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is gratify. It is highlighted in the correct answer is choice 3, "satisfy." If a person's desires are gratified, those desires arefulfilled. Thus the person is satisfied.
5. ○2
This is a Reference question. The word being tested is they. It is highlighted in the correct answer is choice 2, "pent-up aggressive impulses." This is a simple pronoun-referent item. The word the?) here refers to something that "may be expressed towardstrangers later in life." This is the "outlet" toward which the "aggressive impulses" mentionedmay be directed.
6. ○2
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found inparagraph 5. The correct answer is choice 2, "a fear that their parents will punish them and stoploving them." The question asks what causes the conflict between the desire to ventaggression and children's fears. The answer is found in paragraph 5 in the sentence thatreads, "Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, cometo repress most aggressive impulses." Answer choice 2 is the only choice that correctlyidentifies the cause of the conflict created by repressing aggression in children.
7. ○3
This is a Rhetorical Purpose question. If asks you why the author mentions that Freuddescribed people as "steam engines" in the passage. The phrase being tested is highlighted inthe passage. The correct answer is choice 3, "must vent their aggression to prevent it frombuilding up.'' Steam engines will explode if their steam builds up The same is true of people, aschoice 3 indicates. The other choices are not necessarily true of both people and steam engines,so they are incorrect.
8. ○2
This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in thepassage is highlighted:
For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act ofaggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behaveaggressively.
The correct answer is choice 2. It contains all of the essential information in the highlightedsentence. The highlighted sentence compares people who believe particular acts of aggressionare necessary and those who don't, in terms of their relative likelihood to act aggressivelyunder certain conditions. This is precisely what choice 2 says: "People who believe thataggression is necessary and justified are more likely to act aggressively than those who believedifferently." It compares the behavior of one type of person to that of another type of ing essential has been left out, and the meaning has not been changed. Choice 1 changesthe meaning of the sentence; it says categorically that "those (people) who believe that they arefighting an unjust war do not (act aggressively)." The highlighted sentence merely says thatsuch people are "less likely" to act aggressively, not that they never will; this changes themeaning. Choice 3 says, "People who normally do not believe that aggression is necessary andjustified may act aggressively during wartime." This is incorrect because it leaves out criticalinformation: it does not mention people who do believe aggression is necessary. This choicedoes not make the same comparison as the highlighted sentence. Choice 4, "People whobelieve that aggression is necessary and justified do not necessarily act aggressively duringwartime," also changes the meaning of the sentence by leaving out essential information. Inthis choice, no mention is made of people who do not believe aggression is necessary. Thischoice does not make the same comparison as the highlighted sentence.
9. ○3
This is a Negative Factual Information question asking for specific information that can befound in paragraphs 7 and 8. Choice 3 is the correct answer. Choice 1, "moral values," isexplicitly mentioned as one of the influences on aggressive behavior; so it is ces 2 (“previous experiences”) and 4 sentence in paragraph8 says, “People decide whetherthey will act aggressively of not on the basis of factors such as their experiences withaggression and their interpretation of other people’s motives.” Choice 3, the “instinct toavoid aggression,” is not mentioned, so it is the correct answer here.
10. ○2
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is distort . It is highlighted in thepassage. The correct answer is choice 2, "misinterpret." To distort other people's motives isto twist them, or view them incorrectly and thereby not understand them thing that is not understood properly is misinterpreted.
11. ○2
This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph 5 thatrepresent the possible answer choices here.
The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that innerconflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud,for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations ofdaily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including theirparents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demandsimmediately. ■Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love,come to repress most aggressive impulses. ■The Freudian perspective, in a sense, sees usas "steam engines." ■ By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for futureexplosions. ■ Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed towardparents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed towardstrangers later in life.
The sentence provided, "According to Freud, however, impulses that have been repressedcontinue to exist and demand expression," is best inserted at square 2. Square 2 is correctbecause the sentence being inserted is a connective sentence, connecting the idea of childhoodrepression in the preceding sentence to the "Freudian perspective" in the sentence thatfollows. The use of the word however in this sentence indicates that an idea already introduced(the repression of children's aggressive impulses) is being modified. Here, the insertedsentence tells us that Freud thought that even though these impulses are repressed, theycontinue to exist. This serves as a connection to the next sentence and the "Freudianperspective." Inserting the sentence at square 1 would place the modification ("however,impulses . . . continue to exist") before the idea that it modifies (repression of impulses). Thismakes no logical sense. Inserting the sentence at square 3 would move the modifying sentenceaway from its logicalposition immediately following the idea that it modifies (repression ofimpulses). Placing the insert sentence at square 4 moves the sentence farther from its logicalantecedent and has no connection to the sentence that follows it.
12.○2 1 6 3 5
動物攻擊異己時，會表現出非常明顯的侵略性行爲。心理學家們採用了數種方法來分析人類的侵略性行爲。
生物學方法。侵略性行爲似乎與許多生物結構和化學物質有關。如大腦中的下丘腦。很多動物在受到特定刺激時會表現出本能的侵略反應。下丘腦似乎與動物的這種本能反應有關：對許多動物的下丘腦中部分區域進行電激，會引發一些它們的常見侵略性行爲。然而，人類的大腦要複雜的多，大腦的其他結構似乎可以抑制這種本性。
社會生物學是生物學方法的一個分支，該理論認爲侵略性對於人類而言是天生並且必要的。社會生物學認爲，包括侵略性行爲在內的許多社會行爲都是由遺傳決定的。根據達爾文的進化論，他認爲，個體存在的數量遠遠超過那些可以找到食物並且活到成年的個體數量，個體之間開始進行生存競爭，那些擁有競爭優勢的個體更容易存活，並且會將它們有利於生存競爭的基因遺傳給下一代。大部分物種所具有的競爭優勢特質之一就是好鬥性。擁有侵略性特質的個體更容易存活和繁殖，因此，與侵略性行爲相關的各種基因遺傳給下一代的可能性更大。
該理論在衆多方面遭到質疑。其一，人類擁有其他物種不具備的能力，這種並非侵略性質的能力纔是人類生存下來的主要原因。其二，人類身上存在太多的變數，因此，我們無法相信人類會被侵略性衝動主導或者支配。
精神動力學方法。理論家們依據精神動力學方法認爲，內在矛盾是理解人類包括侵略性行爲在內的所有行爲的關鍵所在。比如，弗洛伊德認爲，日常生活中的挫敗感不可避免地導致人類產生侵略性衝動。孩子們時常想對包括他們父母在內的其他人發泄侵略性衝動的情感，因爲即使是最周全的父母也無法做到立即滿足孩子的所有要求。然而，孩們又會因爲害怕受到父母的處罰，擔心失去父母的愛而壓制了內心大部分的侵略性衝動。從某種意義上說，弗洛伊德的觀點是將人類視爲“蒸汽機”，通過內部壓制而不是釋放“蒸汽”，進而爲今後的爆發埋下伏筆。積聚起來的的侵略性衝動需要被釋放出來。孩子們會間接對他們的父母發泄，比如毀壞傢俱，或在以後的生活中對陌生人發泄。
根據精神動力學理論可知，避免有害侵略的最好方法是提倡危害較小的侵略方式。用蒸汽機打個比方吧，言語性的侵略可以釋放些許帶有侵略性質的蒸汽。比如，你可以爲自已最喜歡的體育團隊吶喊助威。精神分析學家是利用精神動力學方法分析的理療師，他們將侵略性衝動的發泄看成是“精神發泄”。理論證明精神發泄是一種安全的方式。但研究發現精神發泄的`有用性和無用性很混亂。有的研究表明精神發泄可以緩解緊張情緒並且有助於降低以後侵略性行爲產生的可能性。但其他研究又表明讓釋放部分的侵略性衝動蒸汽事實上會導致今後更多的侵略性行爲的產生。
認知方法。認知心理學家們認爲人類的行爲受以下因素影響：價值觀、解析自己處境的方式以及不同的選擇。例如，那些認爲侵略性行爲是必要的，並且認爲戰爭時期侵略行爲是正義的人，他們的好鬥性可能更高，而認爲某些戰爭或侵略行爲是不公平的，並且認爲侵略永遠是不正當的人，他們遇事時不大可能會採取侵略性行爲。
另一認知理論認爲，惱人的、痛苦的事件會引起人們的不悅。隨即，這種不悅將導致但並非自動地導致侵略性行爲，人們的認知因素會在其中起到干預作用。一個人是否採取出侵略性行動取決於以下因素，他們進行侵略性攻擊的經歷，對他人動機的解讀等。研究表明帶有侵略性的人經常曲解他人的意圖。例如，他們認爲別人想傷害自己，而事實並非如此。
精神發泄：在精神動力學理論中被視爲強烈情感或緊張的宣泄。
